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Canons and Canonesses Regular
(Also called REGULAR CLERICS, RELIGIOUS CLERICS, CLERIC-CANONS, AUGUSTINIAN CANONS, BLACK CANONS, MONXCANONS).
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, a canon regular is essentially a religious
cleric, or, as the same doctor aptly expresses it: The Order of Canons Regular
is necessarily constituted by religious clerics, because they are essentially
destined to those works which relate to the Divine mysteries, whereas it is not
so with the monastic Orders.
(II-II:189:8 ad 2um, and II-II:184:8). We have
then here what constitutes a canon regular and what distinguishes him from a
monk. The clerical state is essential to the Order of Canons Regular, whereas it
is only accidental to the Monastic Order. Hence Erasmus, himself a canon regular,
declared that the canons regular are a quid medium between the monks and the
secular clergy. And for the same reason Nigellus Vireker, a Benedictine monk of
Canterbury in the twelfth century, contrasts the life of canons regular, as he
know them, with that of his own brethren and the Cistercians, pointing out the
advantages of the former. The canons, he tells us, were spared the long choral
duties, the sharp reproofs, the stern discipline of the Black Monks, and were
not bound to the Spartan simplicity of vesture and diet of the field-working
Cisterians (Speculum Stultorum
, Rolls Series: The Anglo-Latin Satirical poets
of the Twelfth Century
). The Llanthony Chronicler
relates how the first
founders of his famous abbey, having consulted among themselves, decided to
become canons regular, first, because on account of the charity they were well
liked by all, and then because they were satisfied with a modest manner of
living, their habit, though clean, being decent, neither too coarse, nor too
rich. In this moderation of life we may say that canons regular follow the
example of their lawgiver, St. Augustine, of whom St. Possidius, his biographer,
relates that his habit, his furniture, his clothes were always decent, neither
too showy nor too humble and shabby.
The spirit of the canonical order is thus quaintly but clearly explained in
the Observances in Use at the Augustinian Priory at Barnwell, Cambridge
,
lately edited with a translation by F.W. Clarke:
The road along which Canons Regular walk in order to reach the heavenly Jerusalem is the rule of Blessed Augustine. Furthur lest Canons Regular should wander away from the rule, there are given to them, in addition, observances in accordance with it handed down from remote ages and approved among holy fathers in all quarters of the world. This rule is simple and easy, so that unlearned men and children can walk in it without stumbling. On the other hand it is deep and lofty, so that the wise and strong can find in it matter for abundant and perfect contemplation. An elephant can swim in it and a lamb can walk in it safely. As a lofty tower surrounded on all sides by walls makes the soldiers who garrison it safe, fearless, and impregnable, so the rule of Blessed Augustine, fortified on all sides by observances in accordance with it, makes its soldiers, that is, Canon Regular, undismayed at the attacks, safe and invincible.
To explain further the nature and distinctive spirit of the canonical order,
we may say, with St. Augustine, that a canon regular professes two things,
sanctitatem et clericatum
. He lives in community, he leads the life of a
religious, he sings the praises of God by the daily recitation of the Divine
Office in choir; but at the same time, at the bidding of his superiors, he is
prepared to follow the example of the Apostles by preaching, teaching, and the
administration of the sacraments, or by giving hospitality to pilgrims and
travellers, and tending the sick. And so we find that Pope Paschal II, in his
Bull addressed in 1118 to the prior and community at Colchester, tells them that
their order has always been devoted to preaching, hearing confessions, and
baptizing, and ready to accept the care of such parishes and public chapels as
might be entrusted to their charge. This has been pointed out by other popes, as
also by St. Ives of Chartres, and by Cancellieri, who, quoting the authority of
an ancient writer to the effect that the clerics living in common in the Lateran
Basilica observed the regulations introduced there by Pope Gelasius, says that
their work was the administration of the sacraments and the offering of prayer
.
It is the same now. From one monastery alone, that of St. Florian, in Austria,
some forty parishes are served, and those same canons who gave hospitality on
the Great St. Bernard serve a number of parishes in the Canton Valais. The
public prayer, or liturgical office, is celebrated with all the splendour
befitting God's honour and His house. But the canons regular do not confine
themselves exclusively to canonical functions. Nothing, unless incompatible with
the duty of clerics is rejected. To this day, as already mentioned, they give
hospitality to pilgrims and travelers on the Great St. Bernard and on the
Simplon, and in former times the hospitals of St. Bartholomew's Smithfield, in
London, of S. Spirito, in Rome, of Lochleven, Monymusk, and St. Andrew's, in
Scotland, and others like them, were all served by canons regular. In fact, many
congregations of canons made it their chief end to work among the poor, the
lepers, the insane, and the infirm. The clerics established by St. Patrick in
Ireland had a Guest House for pilgrims and the sick whom they tended by day and
by night. And the rule given by Chrodegang to this canons enjoined that a
hospital should be near their house that they might tend the sick. The Councilof
Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) also ordains the erection of a hospital for pilgrims
over which a canon regular is to preside.
The essential and characteristic habit of canons regular is the rochet. With
regtard to the other parts, their dress, as a general rule, is that of other
clergy, although some have added a scapular. By most the rochet is worn as part
of their daily dress, though sometimes reduced to a small linen band hanging
from the shoulders in front and behind. it is now so worn in Austria, on the
Great St. Bernard, and at Aosta. As to the colour of the dress there is no fixed
rule, the custom and traditions of the various Congregations may be observed.
The general colour seems to have been white as now worn by the Lateran
Congregation. A question having been raised as to the proper habit of a canon
regular, when named bishop, it was settled by a Brief of Leo X. A long
dissertation on the dress of the canons regular was presented to the pope by
jurisconsult, Zaccaria Ferreri, who maintained that, with the exception of the
rochet, the canons regular, like the secular clergy, had no fixed dress. It may
be interesting to note that, in this dissertation on the authority of the Most
Reverend Lord Cardinal of England, and many other Prelates, and the English
Ambassador
, the author says, in England the Canons Regular wore violet like
the other clergy.
In the Constitutions given by Cardinal Wolsey to canons
regular mention is also made of this variety of habit.
ORIGIN
Having thus explained what a canon regular is, and what the spirit and work of the canonical order are, it will be easier now to answer such questions as these:
- Who was the founder of the canons regular?
- Whence do they drive their origin?
- When and where were they first known?
Various and contradictory opinions have been expressed to answer these and
similar questions. There have been some writers who, like the famous Cistercian
abbot, Joachim, Coriolanus, Marquez, and others held that the canonical order
began about 1100. According to others the order dates from the time of
Charlemagne, who expressed the wish that all the clergy should be either monks
or canons living in common , as prescribed by the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle, in
789, and Mainz, in 813. The great Bishop of Hippo is also regarded by some as
the founder of the canonical institute. All these opinions are set aside by many
other writers, and especially by the historians of the order, who almost
unanimously trace back the origin of the canons regular much farther in
antiquity. Their institute, they maintain, was founded by Christ Himself, and
dates from the time of the Apostles. These writers and historians begin by
saying that, although it be true that there was a great revival, or general
reformation and spreading of the order in the twelfth century, in France and
elsewhere through the zeal of Ives, Bishop of Chartres, in italy through the
newlyfounded congregation of Blessed Peter de Honestis, and elsewhere through
the congregation of St. Rufus, yet this does not imply that the order took its
origin at that epoch, but rather - since it needed reforming - that it had
already existed for some time. History, in fact, tells us that about the
eleventh century the regular or canonical life hitherto observed alsmost
everywhere by the clergy was given up in many churches, and thus a distinctiion
was made between the clerics who lived in separate houses and those who still
preserved the old discipline, living under rule and having all things in common.
The former were called canonici saeculares, the latter canonici regulares, by
which name they have been known ever since. It is also true that in the year 763
Chrodegang, Bishop of metz, assembled the clergy of his cathedral around him,
led with them a community life, and gave them a rule taken from the statutes of
ancient orders and canons, a discipline also recommended shortly after by the
Councils of Aix-la-Chapelle and Mainz; but in doing this he was only following
the example of St. Augustine, who had introduced among his own clergy the manner
of life which he had seen practiced at Milan. And that is why the member so the
canonical order regard St. Augustine not as their founder, but only as their
reformer, or lawgiver; because to the clergy who lived with him he had given
certain special regulatiions, which were in course of time adopted by almost all
the canons regular, who were on that account called Canons Regular of St.
Augustine.
Those who believe in the Apostolic origin of the canonical institute, support
their contention by the authority of popes, theologians, and church historians.
There is abundant evidence, they say that Christ Himslef instituted a perfect
religious state, and that it was embraced by the Apostles and many of their
disciples from the very beginning of the Church. It is also certain that from
the time of the Apostles there have always been in the Church clerics who,
following the example of the primitive Christians, living secundum regulam sub
sanctis Apostolis constitutam
(according to the Apostolic Rule), had all things
in common. Eusebius, the historian, relates that St. Mark, the disciple of St.
Peter, established this discipline at Alexandria, as did St. Crescentius in Gaul,
St. Saturninus in Spain, and St. Maternus in Germany. We know that St. Eusebius
introduced it at Vercelli in Italy, and St. Amborse at Milan. Pope Urban I (A.D.
227), Paschal II (1099), Benedict XII (1334), Eugenius IV (1431), Sixtus V, and
Pius V in their various Letters and bulls, are quoted by the historians of the
order, to prove distinctly that St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, only restored,
or caused to reflourish, the order of canons regular, which was first instituted
by the Apostles. St. antoninus, Vincent of Beauvais, Sigebert, Peter of Cluny,
Fagnani, and many others tell us that the canonical order traces back its origin
to the earliest ages of the Church. It will suffice to give here the authority
of Suarez, who sums up the case very clearly. After having stated that the
Apostles taught by Christ Himslef formed the first order of clerics, and that
the order did not perish with the Apostles, but was preserved by continuous
succession in their disciples, as proved by letters of Pope St. Clement and
urban I (though these letters are Pseudo-Isidorain in character), the writer
continues:
We read in the Life of St. Augustine that when he was made priest, he instituted a monastery within the church and began to live with the servants of God according to the manner and rules constituted by the holy Apostles. Many therefore suppose that the Order of Regular Clerics, or Canons Regular, was not instituted by St. Augustine, but was either reformed by him or introduced by him into Africa and furnished witha special rule. Pius IV maintains that the Order of Regular Clerics was instituted by the Apostles, and this Benedict XII confirms in his preface to the Constitutions of the Canons Regular. There is no question as regards the continuance of this state from the time of St. Augustine to this time, although with great variety as far as various institutes are concerned.
To this we may add that when a controversy arose between the Benedictine monks and the canons regular with regard to precedence, the question was settled by Pius V in favour of the canons, on account of their Apostolic origin. We may then conclude with the words of Cardinal Pie, who, addressing the canons regular of the Lateran Congregation, whom he had established at Beauchene in his diocese, says:
These that are clothed in white robes, who are they, and whence come they come, I will tell you. heir origin is nothing else but the society and the common life of Jesus and His Apostles, the original model of community life between the bishop and his clergy. On that account they chiefly come from Hippo and from the home of Augustine, who has given them a Rule, which they still glory to observe.
The name Austin (or Augustinian) Canons is commonly used instead of Canons
Regular, and there are some who think that Austin Canons are so styled because
they were instituted by St. Augustine. This is a wrong notion. St. Augustine did
not found the order of canons regular, not even those who are called Austin
Canons. There were canons regular before St. Augustine. The various authoritites
quoted in this article prove it. All St. Austin did was to induce his clergy to
live secundum regulam sub sanctis Apostolis constitutam, which he had seen
practised at Milan, adding to the Apostolic Rule hitherto observed by clerics
living in common, some regulations, afterwards called the Rule of St.
Augustine.
Or, in the words of Pope Paschal II in a Bull quoted by Pennott,
Vitæ regularis propositum in primitiva ecclesia cognoscitur ab Apostolis
institutum quam B. Augustinus tam gratanter amplexus est ut eam regulis
informaret
(A regular mode of life is recognized in the Early Church as
instituted by the Apostles, and adopted earnestly by Blessed Augustine, who
provided it with new regulations) - Hist. Tripart., Lib. II, c. iv, 4. These
regulations which St. Austin had given to the clerics who lived with him soon
spread and were adopted by other religious communities of canons regular in
Italy, in France, and elsewhere. When, in and after the eleventh century, the
various congregations of canons regular were formed, and adopted the Rule of St.
Augustine, they were usually called Canonici Regulares Ordinis S. Augustini
Congregationis, and in England Austin Canons, or Black Canons. but there have
always been canons regular who never adopted the Rule of St. Augustine. Giraldus
Cambrenisis mentions some in his day in England. In a word, canons regular may
be considered as the genus, and austin Canons as the species; or we may say that
all Austin Canons are canons regular, but not all canons regular are Austin
canons.
If further proofs of the Apostolic origin of the canonical order are desired, many may be found in the work of Abbot Ceasare Benvenuti (see bibilograhpy at end of this article), who century by century, from councils, Fathers, and other ecclesiastical sources, proves that from the first to the twelfth century there had always been clerics living in common according to the example of the Apostles. It will be enough to citehere the authority of Döllinger who, after saying that from the time of the Apostles there have been in the Church, virgins, laymen, and ecclesiastics named ascetics, continues:
At Vercelli the holy Bp. Eusebius intorduced the severe discipline of the Oriental monks among his clergy both by word and example. Before the gat of Milan was a cloister for monks under the protection of St. Ambrose … St. Augustine, when a priest, founded a cloister at Hippo, in which with other clerics he lived in humility and community of goods. When Bishop his episcopal residence was converted into a cloister for ecclesiastics. (Eccl. History, tr. by the Rev. E. Cox, II, 270).
To this again may be added, among many others, the words of Benedict XII, Eugenius IV, Pius IV, and Pius V, in their bulls, all asserting almost in as many words, what has been here said. The following words, taken from the Martyrologium for canons regular and approved by the Congregation of Sacred Rites, will suffice for the purpose:
Ordo Canonicorum Regularium, qui in primaevis Ecclesiae saeculis Clerici nominabantur utque ait S. Pius V. in Bullâ (Cum ex ordinum 14 Kal. Jan., 1570): 'ab Apostolis originem traxerunt, quique ab Augustiono eorum Reformatore iterum per reformationis viam mundo geniti fuere', per universum orbem diffusus innumerabilium SS. agmine fulget.
(The order of canons regular, who in the early ages of the Church were called clerics, and who, as St. Pius V says in the Bull Cum ex ordinum, 1570, derived their origin from the Apostles, and who later were born anew to the world through a process of reformation, by their reformer, Augustine, being spread throughout the universe, are renowned for an army of innumerable saints).
DEVELOPMENT
This rule, which, in the words of Giraldus Cambrensis, happily joins the
canonical and clerical life together, was soon adopted by many prelates, not
only in Africa, but elsewhere also. After the death of the holy Doctor, it was
carried into Italy and France by his disciples. One of them, Pope Gelasius,
about the year 492, re-established the regular life in the Lateran Basilica.
From St. John Lateran (the Mother and Mistress of all Churches) the reform
spread till at length the Rule was universally adopted by almost all the canons
regular. It was in the same Lateran Basilica, tradition tells us, that St.
Patrick, the future Apostle of Ireland, professed the canonical institute which
he afterwards intorduced with the Christian Faith, into his own country. At the
voice of the great apostle the Irish nation not only embraced Christianity, but
many also, following his example, embraced the canonical life. On the authority
of Sir James Ware, Canon Burke (Life and Labours of St. Augustine) asserts that
all the monasteries founded in Ireland by St. Patrick, were for canons regular
.
This opinion is also maintained by Allemande, who affirms (Hist. monastique de
l'Irlande) that the Regular Canons of St. Augustine were so early or
considerable in Ireland before the general suppression of monasteries, that the
number of houses they are said to have had seems incredible. They alone
possessed, or had been master of, as many houses as all the other orders
together, and almost all the chapters of the cathedral and collegiate churches
in Ireland consisted of canons regular.
To these authorities we might add that
of the Rev. R. Butler, who, in his notes to the Registrum Omnium Sanctorum
,
expressly affirms that the old foundations in Ireland were exclusively for
Canons.
We might also quote the the words of Bishop Thomas de Burgo, who, in
his Hibernia Dominicana
, does not hesitate to say that St. Patrick was a canon
regular, and that, having preached the Christian Faith in Ireland, he
established there many monasteries of the canonical institute. After this no one
will think that the same writer exaggerates when he appends to his work a
catalogue of 231 monasteries which at some time or other belonged to canons and
canonenesses regular. The Irish clerics became the most learned scholars in
Europe, Ireland's seats of learning, monasteries, nunneries, and charitable
institutions were usnsurpassed either in number or excellence by those of any
nation in th world. The Abbot or Priors of Christ Church and All Hallows in
Dublin, of Connell, Kells, Athessel, Killagh, Newton, and Raphoe had seats in
Parliament.
There seems very little doubt that the canonical institute was introduced
into Scotland by St. Columba. This saint, called monasteriorum pater et
fundator,
in reference to the numerous churches and monasteries built either by
him or by his disciples in Ireland and Scotland, was formed to the religious
life in the monastery of St. Finnian. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, anno 565,
relates that Columba, Masspreost (Mass-Priest), came to the Picts to convert
them to Christ
, or, as another manuscript says: This year, 565, Columba the
Messa-preost, came from the parts of the Scots (Ireland) to the Britons to teach
the Picts, and built a monastery in the island of Hy.
To what order this
monastery, founded by Columba, belonged, we may judge from other monasteries
built by the saint in Ireland and Scotland. As we have already stated, St.
Columba was the disciple of St. Finnian, who was a follower of St. Patrick; both
then had learned and embraced the regular life which the great Apostle had
established in Ireland. Moreover, such writers as Ware, de Burgo, Archdall,
Cardinal Moran, Bower, expressly tell us that Columba built monasteries for
canons regular in Ireland and Scotland. So, for instance, Ware, in his
Antiquitates Hiberniae
, writing of Derry, says: St. Columba built (this
monastery) for Canons Regular in the year 545.
This monastery was a filiation
of the monastery of SS. Peter and Paul at Armagh - which, according to the same
writer, had been founded by St. Patrick for Canons Regular.
Again, tradition
places the first landing of the saint on leaving Ireland at Oronsay, and Fordun
(Bower) notices the island as Hornsey, ubi est monasterium nigrorum Canonicorum,
quod fundavit S. Columba
(where is the monastery of Black Canons which St.
Columba founded). Speaking of the very monastery built by the saint at Hy,
another historian, Gervase of Canterbury, in his Mappa Mundi
, informs us that
the monastery belonged to the Black Canons.
It may be here the place to mention the opinion of some writers who think that the monasteries established by St. Columba in Scotland were for Culdees. It will be remembered that numerous opinions have been expressed concerning the origin and the institute of the Culdees, some calling them monks, some secular canons and hospitallers, and others going so far as to say that they were Independents, or Dissenters, nay even the forefathers of the modern Freemasons. The present writer, on the other hand, is of opinion that the Culdees originally, and some even to the very end, were nothing else but clerics living in common just as those St. Patrick had established in Ireland and St. Columba had introduced into Scotland.
At the time of the Reformation there were in Scotland at least thirty-four houses of canons regular and one of canonesses. These included six Premonstratensian houses, one Gilbertine, and one of the Order of St. Anthony. The others seem to have been chiefly of the Aroasian Congregation, first introduced into Scotland from Nostall Priory, in England. The chief houses were:
- St. Andrews, the Metropolitan of Scotland, founded by Angus, King of the Picts. The church was at first served by Culdees, but in 1144 Bishop Robert, who had been a canon regular at Scone, established here members of his own community. The prior was mitred and could pontificate. In Parliament he had precedence of all abbots and priors.
- Scone, founded by King Alexander I. Here the Scottish kings were crowned. The stone on which the coronation took place was said to be that on which Jacob rested his head; it is now at Westminster, having been removed by Edward I. Tradition syas that the Culdees were at Scone before Alexander brought canons regular from Nostall Priory in 1115.
- Holy Rood, of which King David was the founder, in 1128, for canons regular,
in the
vail that lyis to the Eist frae the Castell, quhare now lyis the Cannongait, and which at that time was part of ane gret forest full of hartis, hyndis, toddis and sicklike manner of beistis
, as Bellenden, the translator of Bower, expresses it. This famous abbey was burnt down, at the instigation of John Knox, in 1544, but some efforts were made to restore Divine service in the chapel as late as 1688, for in that year Father G. Hay, a Scotch canon regular, of the French congregation, performed there a funeral as he says,in his habit with surplice and aulmess after the rites of Rome
. Next the abbey was the Royal Palace, and we are told that the Scottish kings often went unto the saintly convent, with good monks to dine And quaff to organ music the pleasant cloister wine.
Many of the houses founded by St. Columba remained in possession of the canons till the time of the Reformation. Oronsay and Crusay were of the number.
Much valuable information concerning many of the canonical houses may be found in Fordun's Scoti-Chronicon, written before 1384 (ed. Skene, Edinburgh, 1871-72). As Walter Bower, its continuator and annotator, was a canon regular, and abbot of Inchcolm, he no doubt derived all his materials at firs hand from the archives of the order, and thus many important particulars are related by him concerning the foundations of the houses, their inmates, and particular events.
There are not wanting writers who, on the authority of Jocelin, William of
Malmsbury, Gesta Pontificum
, and others, are of opinion that the canonical
order was established in Britain by St. Patrick, on his return from Rome to
Ireland. Be this as it may, the Saxon conquerors of the country extirpated not
only the religious establishments, but almost the very Faith of Christ from the
land. The faithful either were obliged to dwell in the fastnesses of Wales or
were made slaves. It was in these circumstances that Pope Gregory the Great sent
to England St. Augustine with forty clerics, who according to the Bull of Pope
Eugenius IV (quoted by Lingard in his Anglo-Saxon Church, I, iv), by which, in
1446, he restored the Lateran Basilica to the canons regular, formed a Canonical
Institute. Speaking of the ordr founded by the Apostle and reformed by the holy
Bishop of Hippo, the pope says: Blessed Gregory commanded St. Augustine, the
Bishop of England, to establish it as a new plantation among the nation
entrusted to his care and spread it to the utmost distant parts of the West
.
And William of Coventry, in his Chronicle, A.D. 620, tells us that Paulinus
with twelve clerics was sent by the Pope to help Augustine.
In the North also
the disciples of St. Columba were preaching the Gospel and establishing the
canonical order among the nation they were converting to Christ. The Roman and
British clergy amalgamated, and were learn from English historians that most if
not all the cathedral and large churches were served by regular clerics or
canons regular till the tenth century, when they were replaced by Benedictine
monks by royal authority, and sometimes by means even less lawful. Dr. Lingard
clearly states that:
in many of these religious establishments the inmates had been Canons Regular from the beginning. In many they had originally been monks and had converted themselves into Canon, but all considered themselves bound by their rule to reside within the precincts of their monasteries, to meet daily in the church for the performance of divine service, to take their meals in the same hall, and to sleep in the same dormitory.
In fact, this same historian is of opinion that St. Augustine and his companions were clerics living in common. Writing of the clergy in Anglo-Saxon times, Dr. Lingard says:
The chief resource of the Bishop lay in the Cathedral monastery, where the clergy were carefully instructed in their duties and trained in the exercise of their holy profession. They were distinguished by the name of Canons because the rule which they observed had been founded in accordance with the canons enacted in different councils.
And he adds this explanatory note from the Excerptiones of Egbert:
Canonen dicimus regulas quas sancti Patres constiturerunt in quibus scriptum est quomodo canonici, id est clerici regulares, vivere debeant.
(By the term canons we designate those rules which the holy Fathers have laid down, in which it has been written how canons (canonici), i.e. regular clerics, ought to live). We have also the fact that in the twelfth century many churches served by secular canons, like Plympton, Twynham, Taunton, Dunnow, Gisburn, were given to canons regular, who, it would seem, were the original owners. This view is confirmed by the authorities of various historians. In his History of the Archbishops (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series, London, 1876), Diceto tells us that at Dunstan's suggestion King Edgar drove the clerics out of most of the churches of England and placed monks in their stead. In Liber de Hyda we find that canons had been introduced at Winchester by King Ethelred, and that Bishop Grimbald, a zealous reformer of the clergy, had established a community of clerics whose duty it was to perform the Divine Office. Speaking of Ælfric, a monk who had been elected Archbishop of Canterbury, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 995, remarks that when he came to hic cathedral he was received by a community of clerics, when he would have preferred monks.
It would seem, then, that writers like Tanner, the modern editors of Dugdale's Monasticon, and others, who think that the canons regular were introduced into England after the year 1100, or after the coming of William the Conqueror, may have been misled by the fact that it was only after the eleventh century that the canons regular were so styled generally; nevertheless these are the same ecclesiastics, until then commonly called religious or regular clerics. It is also true that, as elsewhere so in England, in the twelfth century there was a great revival in the canonical order on account of various congregations newly found in France, Italy, and the Low countries, and it was some of these new canons that came with the Conqueror; but this does not prove that the canonical life was unknown before. In England alone, from the Conquest to the death of Henry II, no fewer than fifty-four houses were founded where the canons regular were established. Colchester in 1096 was the first, followed ten years later by Holy Trinity in London. In 1100 Ralph Mortimer, by consent of Gerard, Bishop of Hereford, founded a canonical house at Wigmore, and in 1110 another house for Austin Canons was built at Haghmond. At Taunton a colony of secular priests became a monastery of canons regular. Secular canons were also replaced by canons regular at Twynham, Plympton, Waltham, and other places. In the period mentioned there were, among others, the foundations of the Austin houses at Dunmow, Thremhall, Southhampton, Gisburn, newnham in Bedfordshire, Norton in Cheshire, Stone in Staffordshire, Anglesey and Barnwell in Cambridgeshire, Berden in Essex. This was, no doubt, a period of great prosperity for the canonical order in England. But soon evil days came. There was first the Black Plague, and like every other ecclesiastical institution, the canons regular were fairly decimated, and we may say that they never quite recovered. To remedy the evil Cardinal Wolsey thought it expedient to introduce a general reform of the whole canonical order in England. In the capacity of papal delegate, on 19 March, 1519, he issued the Statuta, which were to be observed by all the Austin Canons. These ordinance, as Abbot Gasquet observes, are valuable evidence as to the state of the great Augustinian Order at that time in England. The statutes provide for the union of all the Austin Canons; for the assembly of a general chapter every three years; for various matters concerning obedience, poverty, and the general discipline of the cloister. Special regulations are given for the daily recitation of the Divine Office and singing of Masses. Directions are laid down for the reception and profession of novices, for uniformity in the religious habit, and sending young students to Oxford University. But troubled days soon came over the land, and these statutes, good though they were, could not keep off the evil times. The canonical houses were suppressed, and the religious dispersed, persecuted, little by little disappeared from the land altogether. Yet, in spite of the previous disasters, by Abbot Gasquet's computation ninety-one houses belonging to the canons regular wee suppressed or surrendered at the time of the Reformation between 1538 and 1540, with one thousand and eighty-three inmates - namely, Austin Canons, fifty-nine houses and seven hundred and seventy-three canons; Premonstratensians, nineteen houses and one hundred and fifty-one religious. This number of houses and religious does not include the lesser monasteries with an aggregate of one house and five hundred monks and canon, nor the nuns of the various orders estimated at one thousand five hundred and sixty.
The best known canonical houses were: Walsingham, Waltham, St. Mary's Overy, Bolton, St. Bartholomew's Smithfield, Nostall, Bridlington, Bristol, Carlisle, newbury, hexham, Lanercost, Bodmin, colchester, Dunstable, Merton, Kertmele, Llanthony, Plympton, St. Frideswide's at Oxford, Osney.
At Walshingham there was a famous shrine of Our Lady, a model of the Holy
House of Nazareth, founded two hundred years before the miraculous removal to
Loretto. Erasmus, writing in the sixteenth century, gives a vivid description of
the shrine and the canons, its custodians. At Bourne Abbey lived from 1300 to
1340 Robert de Brunne, a canon regular, who had been styled the Father of the
English language.
In his monastic seculsion he welded together the diverse
dialects, which then divided shire from shire, into the grammaatical structure
which the language has since retained. Bridlington Priory, where William de
Newbridge and several other historians lived, was also sanctified by the life,
virtues, and miracles of its holy prior, John de Tweng, the last English saint
to be canonized prior to the Reformation. He died in 1379. In 1386 a mandate was
issued to collect evidence with a view to canonization. the body was translated
in 1405 de mandato Domini papae, and Boniface IX by a Bull, the original of
which was found in the Vatican Archives by J.A. Twemlow a few years ago,
formally canonized him. The holy prior was a very popular saint in the North of
England. A rich shrine had been built over his tomb, from which the people
begged Henry VIII to withold his hand; but all in vain. Lest the people should
be reduced in the offering of their money, the shrine was pulled down and
destroyed. Sempringham saw the beginning by St. Gilbert, and the wonderful
growth of the only pre-Reformation institute of distinctly English origin. Here,
too, Peter de Langtoft, the historian, lived and wrote his well-known works.
Within the walls of Merton Abbey Thomas of Canterbury, when a youth, received
his eduacation and made his profession as a canon regular before he was
consecrated archbishop. Chic Priory, whence came William de Corbeil, Archbishop
of Canterbury, was renowned for the learning of its religious clerics: clerical
litteraturâ insignes.
Thurgarton was the home of that spiritual writer, Walter
Hilton, who, about the year 1400, wrote the Scala perfectionis, usually
attributed to some Carthusian monk. St. Frideswide's, founded for canons regular
at Castle Tower by Robert d'Oiley, and translated to Osney in 1149, became, as
Cardinal Newman tells us, a nursery for secular students, subject to the
Chancellor's jurisdiction.
At Lilleshall Priory lived John Myrk, the author of
Instructions for Parish Priests, a work written in irregular couplets, doubtless
that they might be easily committed to memory. It has been edited by the Early
English Text Society. The following verses, where Myrk gives excellent and
explicit directions for behaviour in church, are a fair sample of the author's
style:
That when they do to Church fare,
Then bid them leave their many words,
Their idle speech and nice border {jests}
And put away all vanity
And say their Pater Noster and their Ave.
None in the church stand shall,
Nor lean to pillar not to wall,
But fair on knees they shall them set,
Kneeling down upon the flat,
And pray God with heart meek
To give them grace and mercey eke.
Suffer them to make no bere {noise}
But aye to be in their prayer.
Some twenty-five years ago the canons regular of the Lateran Congregation returned to this Cornish town where before the Reformation their brethren the Austin Canons had a beautiful priory in honour of St. Mary and St. Petrock. The new prior is now the residence of the provincial, or visitor, the novitiate-house for England, and the center from which several Missions - as Truro, St. Ives, and Newquay - are served by canons regular.
Although when the storm of persecution came and the religious houses were either seized or surrendered the canons regular were not as faithful to the Church and their profession as might have been desired, yet there were not wanting many who preferred to lay down their lives rather than betray their Faith or give up God's property. Of this number were W. Wold, Prior of Bridlington, the Sub-Prior of Walsingham, with sixteen canons, and Ven. Laurence Vaux. The canonical order is now represented in England by Premonstratensians at Crowley, Manchester, Spalding, and Storrington. The Canons Regular of the Lateran Congregation are at Bodmin, Truro, St. Ives, and Newquay, in Cornwall; at Spettisbury and Swanage, in dorsetshire; at Stroud Green and Eltahm, in London. Besides the occupations of the regular life at home and the public recitation of the Divine Office in choir, they are chiefly employed in serving missions, preaching retreats, supplying for priests who ask their service, and hearing confessions, either as ordinary or extraordinary confessors to convents or other religious communities.
The canonical order must have been introduced into the New World soon after the discovery of that country by Columbus. In fact, tradition tells us that some canons regular from Spain were his companions in one or other of his voyages. Certain it is that at the general chapter of the Lateran Congregation held at Ravenna in 1558, at the request of many Spanish canons, Don Francis de Agala, a professed canon regular from Spain, who for some ten years had already laboured in the newly-discovered country, was created vicar-general in America, with powers to gather into communities all the members of the canonical institute who were then dispersed in those parts, and the obligation to report to the authorities of the order. At present there are canons regular of the Lateran Congregation in the Argentine, and in Canada the Canons of the Immaculate Conception serve different missions. The premonstratensian Canons also are in different places in South America.
REFORMS AND CONGREGATIONS
As we have already observed, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries a great
reform and revival took place in the canonical order. A great number of
congregations of canons regular sprang into existence, each with its own
distinctive constitutions, grounded on the Rule of St. Augustine and the
statutes which blessed Peter do Honestis, about the year 1100, gave to his
canons at Ravenna, where also he instituted the first sodality, called The
Children of Mary.
In order to preserve uniformity and regularity among these
numerous congregations Pope Benedict XII, in the year 1339, issued his Bull Ad
decorem, which may be rather called a book of constitutions to be observed by
all canons regular then existing. By this Bull the order, then extending through
Europe and Asia, was divided into twenty-two provinces or kingdoms, among them
being Ireland, England, and Scotland, forming each a province. The abbots and
visitors were to be convened at a provincial chapter to be held in each province
every four years. Visitors were to be elected. Whose duty it was to make a
canonical visitation of every house in their respective provinces. Minute
regulations are laid down for the daily recitation or singing of the Divine
Office in choir, clothings, professions, studies at the universities, expenses
and other details in the clerical life, and the general discipline of the canons
in the cloister. The Roman Martyrology mentions the existence of more than
thirty-three different congregations of canons regular. The historian of the
order number no fewer than fifty-four. It is evident that it would be quite
impossible to give here even a short account of each in particular, therefore we
shall content ourselves with making special mention of a few.
By common consent the Lateran Congregation, officially styled Congregatio SS. Salvatoris Lateranensis, stands first in antiquity and importance. As the title implies, this congregation takes its origin from the Roman Basilica of St. John Lateran, the pope's own cathedral. History, confirmed by the authority of Pontifical Bulls, informs us that Pope Silvester established in the basilica built by the Emperor Constantine clerics living in common after the manner of the Primitive Church. In the year 492, Gelasius, a disciple of St. Augustine, as we have already mentioned, intorduced in the patriarchal basilica the regular discipline which he had learnt at Hippo. Pope Gregory the Great, Eugenius II, Sergius III, and Alexander II, all endeavoured to maintain the observance of the regular life established among the clergy of the basilica. As relaxation had crept in, the last name pope, at the request of St. Peter Damian, called some canons from St. Frigidian at Lucca, a house of strict observance. The reform spread, till at length the houses that had embrace it were formed into one large congregation. In the eighteenth century the Lateran Congregation numbered forty-five abbeys and seventy-nine other houses in Italy, besided many affiliated convents of canonesses, monasteries, and colleges of canons regular outside of Italy. The canons regular served the Lateran Basilica from the time they were put in possession till 1391, when secular canons were introduced by Boniface VIII. Several attempts were made to restore the basilica to its original owners, and finally Pope Eugenius IV, in 1445, gave it over to them, an act wich was confirmed by Nicholas I. But the arrangement did not last long, and eventually the canons regular were definitvely displaced, and the basilica made over to secular canons. All that remains now to the canons regular is the nae they derive from the basilica and a few other privileges, such as precedence over all the other religious orders and the faculty of saying all the Offices which are said by the Lateran Canons in all their Church.
There are at present houses belonging to the Lateran Congregation in Italy,
Poland, France, Belgium, England, Spain, and America. The congregation is
divided into six provinces, each presided over by a visitor or provincial. The
abbot general and procurator general reside in Rome at S. Pietro in Vincoli,
where is also the directorate of the confraternity called The Children of Mary
.
There are novitiate houses, where young men are prepared for the order, in Italy,
Belgium, Spain, England, and Poland. The proper habit of the Lateran
Congregation is a white woolen cassock with a linen rochet, which is worn as an
essential part of the daily dress. Their work is essentially clerical, the
recitation of the Divine Office in church, the administration of the Sacraments,
the preaching of the Word. In Italy they have charge of parishes in Rome,
Bologna, Genoa, Fano, Gubbio, and elsewhere.
It is the opinion of Helyot and others that no Canons of the Holy Sepulchre existed before 1114, when some canons regular, who had adopted the Rule of St. Augustine, were brought from the West and introduced into the Holy City by Godfrey of Bouillon. On the other hand, Suarez, Mauburn, Ferreri, Vanderspeeten, and other, upholding the tradition of the canonical order, maintain that St. James the Less, the first Bishop of Jerusalem, established clerics living in common the in the Holy City, where also, after the time of the crusaders, flourished the Congregation of the Holy Sepulchre. Driven away by the Moslems, the canons sought refuge in Europe, where they had monasteries, in Italy, France, Spain, Poland, and the Low Countries. In these several countries, with the exception of Italy, they continued to exist until the French Revolution. In Italy they seem to have been suppressed by Innocent VIII, who, in 1489, transferred all their property to the Knights of Malta. As regards men, the congregation seems now extinct, but it is still represented by Sepulchrine Canonesses, who have converts in Belgium, Holland, France, Spain, and England. According to Dugdale's Monasticon, the canons had two houses in England, one at Thetford and the other at Warwick. By a Bull, dated 10 January, 1143, to be found in the Bullarium Lateranense, Pope Celestine II confirms the church and the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre in all the possessions they had received from Godfrey of Bouillon, King Baldwin, and other benefactors. Mention is also made in the Bull of several churches in the Holy Land and in Italy belonging to the canons. Cardinal de Vitry, a canon regular of Oignies, and Cardinal Patriarch of Jerusalem, who had lived in Palestine some years, relates that the canons served, amongst other churches, that of the Holy Sepulchre and those on Mount Sion and on Mount Olivet. The patriarch was also Abbot of the Holy Sepulchre, and was elected by the canons regular.
In the year 1109 the famous scholar and teacher, William de Champeaux,
formerly Archdeacon of Paris, and afterwards a canon regular, opened, at the
request of his disciples, in his monastery of St. Victor near the city, a school
which, owing to the great reuputation of the master for learning, soon drew
crowds of students from many parts. Founded by a scholar, the monastery of St.
Victor for many centuries was a centre of learning and virtue, or, as a French
writer (Pasquier) says, Les lettres y furent toujours logées a bonnes enseignes
(there, letters were always entertained at good inns). Here were formed men like
Hugh, Richard, and Adam of St. Victor, all famous for their theological works
and their piety. The last named, Adam, had been called by Dom Gueranger the
greatest poet of the Middle Ages.
It was Adam who, among his beautiful
liturgical hymns composed three admirable proses in honour of St. Thomas of
Canterbury, beginning Gaude Sion et latare
, Aquas plenas amaritudine
, Pia
Mater plangat Ecclesia
. The pious composer writes very feelingly of the holy
martyr, whom he had heard and seen at St. Victor only sixteen months before his
martyrdom. The archbishop, while at Paris to thank the king for his protection,
wished also to visit the monastery of St. Victor, where at the time lived the
saintly Richard. This visit took place on the octave of the Feast of St.
Augustine, and the chronicler relates how the future martyr was joyously
received by the community and was introduced into the chapter room, where he
made an address to the brethren from the text, In pace factus est locus
(Psalm
75). This visit and conference of their holy brother (for it must be remembered
that St. Thomas had made his profession as a canon regular) made a great
impression, we are told, on all who were present, and they remembered it when
they shortly after heard of his cruel death.
So great was the reputation of the monastery built by William de champeaus that houses were soon established everywhere after the model of St. Victor's, which was regarded as their mother-house. At the death of Gilduin, the immediate successor of William, who had been made Bishop of Chalons, the Congregation already counted forty-four houses. From this congregation, in 1149, sprang another, that of Sainte Genevieve, which in its turn became very numerous and, reformed as the Gallican Congregation, in the sixteenth century, by a holy man called Charles Faure, had, at the outbreak of the Revolution, no fewer than one hundred abbeys and monasteries in France. Both these congregations became extinct, as far as men are concerned, but the ancient congregation of St. Victor is still represented by a very old community of canonesses at Ronsbrugge, near Ypres, in Belgium. Some years ago the congregation was revived, with some modifications, by the Very Rev. Dom Goea, then Vicar-General of St. Claude in France, under the denomination of Canons Regular of the Immaculate Conception. Before their expulsion from France they served the ancient Abbey of St. Anthony in Dauphiné. They have now emigrated to Italy and to Canada. Their habit is a white woollen gown and linen rochet with a black cloak.
The Premonstratensian Congregation was founded at Prémontré, near Laon, in France, by St. Norbert, in the year 1120, and approved by Pope Honorius II, in 1126. According to the spirit of its founder, this congregtion unites the active with the contemplative life, the institute embracing in its scope the sanctification of its members and the administration of the sacraments. It grew large even during the lifetime of its founder, and now has charge of many parishes and schools, especially in Austria and Hungary. The Premonstratensians wear a white habit with white cincture. They are governed by an abbot general, vicars, and visitors.
The origin of the Congregation of the Holy Cross appears to be uncertain, although all admit its great antiquity. It has been divided into four chief branches: the Italian, the Bohemian, the Belgian, and the Spanish. Of this last very little is known. The branch once flourishing in Italy, after several attempts at reformation, was finally suppressed by Alexander VII in 1656. In Bohemia there are still some houses of Croisier Canons, as they are called, who, however, seem to be different from the well known Belgian Canons of the Holy Cross, who trace their origin to the time of Innocent III and recognize for their Father Blessed Theodore de Celles, who founded their first house at Huy, near Liège. These Belgian Croisier Canons have a great affinity with the Dominicans. They follow the Rule of St. Augustine, and their contitutions are mainly those compiled for the Dominican Order by Raymond of Pennafort. Besides the usual duties of canons in the church, they are engaged in preaching, administering the sacraments, and teaching. Formerly they had houses in Belgium, Holland, Germany, France, England, Ireland, and Scotland. Till some years ago they served missions in North America. At present they have five monasteries in Belgium, of which St. Agatha is considered the mother-house. To these Croisier Canons belongs the privilege, granted to them by Leo X, and confirmed by Leo XIII, of blessing beads with an indulgence of 500 days. Their habit was formerly black, but is now a white soutane with a black scapular and a cross, white and black on the breast. In choir they wear in summer the rochet with a black almuce.
To St. Gilbert of Sempringham is due the honour of founding the only religious order of distinctly English origin. Having completed his studies in England and in France, he returned to the Diocese of Lincoln, where he began to labour with great zeal for the salvation of souls, becoming a canon regular in the monastery of Bridlington. But finding that the discipline of the order was not strictly observed, he conceived, in1148, the idea of introducing a reform in those regions. After much prayer, thought, and taking advice from holy men, he came to the conclusion that it was necessary to establish a new congregation, composed of both men and women, who should live under the same roof, though of course separated. This idea he put into execution, giving the rule of St. Benedict to the woman and that of canons regular to the men, with special and carefully elaborated constitutions for both. The Gilbertine Congregation spread especially in the North of England, and as already stated, at the time of the general dissolution it had twenty houses and one hundred and fifty-one religious. At the temporary University of Stamford, Sempringham Hall, founded by Robert Lutrell in 1292, was especially for the students of the Gilbertine Congregation.
The canons regular, usually called monks, whom visitors find serving at the Hospice on the Great St. Bernard, belong to the Congregation of St. Augustine, St. Bernard, and St. Nicholas, as it is officially called. They were established on this famous pass of the Alps by Bernard of Menthon, a canon regular of Aosta, about the year 969, according to some, or later, according to others. The religious institute in such a place was only meant by the founder for the convenience of pilgrims and travellers who cross the Alps at a point always full of dangers. The hospice, the canons, their work are too well known to need more than a short mention here. Besides lay brothers and servants, thee are always at the hospice about fifteen canons, who come from Martigny, their mother-house, where also resides the superior general of the congregation. Some canons have charge of the hospice on the Simpion Pass, and a certain number of parishes in the Canton Valais are served by canons of the same congregation.
The origin of the Windesheim Congregation is due to Gerard Groot, a zealous
preacher and reformer of the fourteenth century, at Deventer in the Low
Countries. Touched by his preaching and example, many poor clerical students
gathered around him and, under his direction, putting together whatever they
earned week by week, began to live in common.
Such was the beginning of the
institute known as that of the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life.
This
institution spread rapidly, and in short time nearly every town in Holland and
the adjacent countries contained one or more houses of The New Devotion
as it
was then called. But difficulties were not wanting. The members of The New
Devotion
were not bound together by any vows, and the institute had received no
formal approval from the ecclesiastical authorities. Groot foresaw that the only
safeguard for the continuance of the new institute was to affiliate it in some
way to some great religious order already approved by the Church, to the
authority of which the devout brethren and sisters might look for guidance and
protection. Having heard of the famous Blessed John Ruysbrock, prior of a house
of canons regular at Groendael near Brussels, he went to visit and consult him.
Deeply edified by what he saw and heard there, Gerard Groot resolved to place
this new institute under the spiritual guidance of the canons regular. The
execution of tis resolve was left by Gerard Groot, at his death, to his beloved
disciple, Florentius Radwyn. A beginning was soon made, and the foundation of
the first house laid at Windersheim, near Zwolle. This became the mother-house
of the famous congregation, which, only sixty years after the death of Groot,
possessed in Belgium alone more than eighty well-organized monsteries, some of
which, according to the chronicler John Buschius, who had visited them all,
contained as many as a hundred, or even two hundred, inmates. The congregation
continued in its primitive fervour until thedevastations of the Reformers drove
it from its native soil, and it was at last utterly destroyed during the French
Revolution. To this double institute the Church owes many pious and learned men -
as Raymond Jordan, called Idiota, John Ruysbrock, Mauburn, Garetius, Latomus,
and Erasmus. Some, like St. John Ostervick, canonized by Pius IX, shed their
blood rather than deny their Faith. Chief among these learned and holy men
stands Thomas a Kempis, when still a youth joined the institute, and knew the
saintly Floretius and the first founders of the congregation.
Although the canonical order possessed so many houses in Ireland before the
dissolution by Henry VIII; yet, on account of the persecution, little by little
it appears to have languished, and by 1620 to have been nearly extinct; it
somewhat revived, however, for canons regular were once more to be found in the
country not long after this. It is not improbable that at the outbreak of the
persecution, like many members of other religious orders, some of the Irish
canons may have retired to foreign monasteries and maintained a
quasi-independent existence,and have been joined by others of their compatriots
who were desirous of entering the canonical institute. In 1645 Dom Thaddeus
O'Conel was butchered at Sligo by the Scotch Puritans together with the
Archbishop of Tuam, Malachy O'Quechly. At the commencement of 1646 the canons
were sufficiently numerous to be formed by Innocent X into a separate
congregation, that of St. Patrick, and this congregation, as the same pope
declared, inherited all the rights, privileges, and possessions of the old Irish
canons. In the year 1698 the Irish Congregation, by a Bull of Innocent XII, was
affiliated and aggregated to the Lateran Congregation. From the moment the union
was made the two congregations formed but one, and the members of each enjoyed
all the rights and privileges of the other. The constitutions of the Lateran
Congregation were adopted with some little modification by the Irish. In 1703
Dom Milerius Burke, Abbot of St. Thomas, Dublin, was appointed by the abbot
general, Clappini, with the approval of Clement XI, vicar-general in the three
kingdoms. In 1735 the Irish canons were claiming before the Congregation of
Propoganda their right to several churches, parishes, and houses. The cause was
settled in their favour, but there were many difficulties, and they could get
possession of only a few. In the Spicilegium Ossoriense
(III, 148) we find
that Henry O'Kelly, a canon regular, obtained from Pope Benedict XIII letters in
virtue of which he not only called himself Abbot of St. Thomas, Dublin, but also
claimed the parochial rights over a great part of the city, without any
dependence upon the metropolitan. The last canon of the Irish Congregation died
towards the beginning of the nineteenth century. But the Irish Congregation
having been united, as we have stated, with the Lateran, all its rights and
privileges still survive in the last-named.
The Austrian-Congregation, formed in 1907, is composed of the various ancient monasteries, abbeys, and collegiate churches of canons regular in Austria. These are St. Florian, Klosterneuburg, Reichersburg, Voran, Neustift. The president of this new congregation is the Abbot of St. Florian.
Other more or less distinct congregations now no longer in existence have been those of St. Rufus, founded in 1039, and once flourishing in Dauphine; of Aroasia (Diocese of Arras, in France), founded in 1097; Marbach (1100); of the Holy Redeemer of bologna, also called the Renana (1136), now united to the Lateran Congregation; of the Holy Spirit in Sassia (1198); of St. George in Alga, at Venice (1404); of Our Saviour in Lorraine, reformed in 1628 by St. Peter Fourier.
CANONESSES REGULAR
To most religious orders and congregation of men convents of nuns are related, following the same rules and constitutions. There are canonesses regular, as well as canons regular. The Apostolic origin is common to both. As Suarez says, with regard to origin and antiquity the same is to be said of orders of women both in general and in particular as of orders of men. The one generally began with the other. St. Basil in his rules addresses both men and women. And St. Augustine founded his first monastery for women in Africa at Tagaste. Most, if not all, of the congregations which go to form the canonical order had, or still have, a correlative congregation for women. In Ireland St. Patrick instituted canons regular, and St. Bridget was the first of numberless canonesses. The monasteries of the Gilbertine Congregation were nearly always double, for men and women. As with the canons, so also among the canonesses, discipline and love of community life now flourished now languished, so that in the tenth and eleventh centuries many of them became canonicae saeclulares and though living in the same house, no longer cherished the spirit of religious poverty or kept a common table.
On the other hand many communities of canonesses willingly took the name and the rule of life laid down for the congregations of regular canons. There still exist in Italy, France, Spain, Belgium, Holland, England, Germany, Africa, America, nuns and convents belonging to the Lateran or to some other congregation of canons regular. The contemplative life is represented by such convents as Newton Abbot in England, Sta. Pudenziana at Rome, Sta. Maria di Passione at Genoa, Hernani in Spain, St. Trudo at Bruges. The Hospitalarians were till lately well represented in France with convents of canonesses at Paris, Reims, Laon, Soisssons, and elsewhere.
Occupied in the education of children, there are besides some of the ancient
convents of canonesses of various congregations, the canonesses of the
Congregation of Notre Dame, instituted in 1597 at Mattaincourt, in Lorraine, by
St. Peter Fourier. This congregation, whose object is the gratuitous education
of poor girls, spread rapidly in France and Italy. There are now convents of
Notre Dame in France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Germany, Italy, and Africa. In
France alone, until the persecution of 1907, they had some thirty flourishing
communities and as many schools for externs and boarders. Driven away from
france, some have taken refuge in England, like those of the famous convent of
Les Oiseaux, Paris, who are now at Westgate, and those of Versailles who have
settled at Hull. With some modifications the work was soon introduced into the
New World in a remarkable way. The canonesses of the convent at Troyes had for
some time earnestly desired to carry on their institute in Canada. Circumstances,
however, prevented their going, but at their request Margaret Borugeoys, the
president, of the confraternity attached to their convent, gladly crossed the
ocean. In 1657 she opened a school at Montreal, in which, in accordance with the
rules laid down by Peter Fourier, the poor were taught gratuitously. The school
was a great success. Margaret returned to France to ask for helpers, and found
them among her sister, the Children of Mary of Troyes. Returning to Canada with
four fellow-workers, and soon followed by others she opened a school for
boarders as well as a day school. In 1676 these pious women were formed into the
Congregation of Notre Dame.
Margaret died in 1700 and has since been declared
venerable. The work she had transferred to Canada is still flourishing. At her
death there were ten houses in the Dominion; there are now more than a hundred
spread over the whole of North America under a superior general, who resides at
the mother-house, Montreal.
In 1809 Bishop Wittmann founded, in Bavaria, The Poor Sisters of the Schools
of Notre Dame
, and institute similar to that founded by St. Peter Forier. This
association is now widespread in Europe and in America, and has done excellent
work in the field of education.
There are English canonesses at Bruges, and at Neuilly, near Paris. In England there is a convent of the Holy Sepulchre at New Hall, with a flourishing school, originally at Liège; also a filiation of that at Bruges, at Hayward's heath, with a large school; at Newton Abbot a numerous community, with a colony at Hoddesdon, devoted to the contemplative life and the Perpetual Adoration. This last convent is, as it were, a link with the pre-Reformation canonesses, through Sister Elizabeth Woodford, who was professed at Barnharm, Priory, Bucks, 8 December, 1519. When the convent was suppressed, in 1539, she was received for some time into the household of Saint Thomas More. Later on she went to the Low Countries and was received into the convent of canonesses regular at St. Ursula's, Louvain, of the Windersheim Congregation. So many English ladies, daughters and sisters of martyrs, like Ann Clitheroe, Margaret Clement, Eleanor and Margaret Garnet, followed her that, in 1609, they formed an English community, St. Monica's, Louvain. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, this community of English canonesses returned to England, first to Spettisbury, afterwards to their present home at Newton Abbot. The chronicles of this ancient convent are being published, and two very interesting volumes have already appeared.
Bullarium Lateranense (Rome, 1727); PENNOTTO, Generalis Sacri Ordinis Clericorum-Canonicorum Historia Tripartia (Rome, 1642); AMORT, Vertus disciplina canonici saecularis et regularis; BENVENUTI, Discoso storico-teologico della vita commune dei Chierici dei primi dodici secoli della Chesa (1728); MOLINET, Sur l origine et l antiquite des chanoines seculiers et reguliers; PISANI, Notice historique sur l Ordre des Chanonies Reguliers (Louvain, 1874); BONNEAU, Simple otice sur l Ordre Apostolique des Cahanines Reguliers (Louvain, 1892); GAUTIER, (Euvres poetiques d Adam de St. victor (Paris, 1858); SCULLY, Life of the Ven. Thomas a Kempis (London, 1901); Journal of Theological Studies (London, 1904), Vl REEVES (ed.), Life of St. Columba, foundr of Hy, Written by Adamnan (Edinburgh, 1874); SUAREZ, tr. HUMPHREY, The Religious State; RANDOLPH, Abbeys around London (London, 1899); HAMILTON (ed) Chronicle of the English Canonesses, Louwain (London, 1905);HERMANS, Annales Canonicorum Reg. Ordinis S. Curcis (Bois-le due, 1858); HELYOT, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires (Paris, 1714); MIRAEUS, origines Canonic, Regularium (Cologne, 1615); DeCollegiis Can. Reg. (Cologne, 1615); Codex regular, et constit. Can. Reg. (Antwerp, 1638).
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